Ancient DNA of northern China Hystricidae sub-fossils reveals the evolutionary history of old world porcupines in the Late Pleistocene.

BACKGROUND: Old World porcupines (Family: Hystricidae) are the third-largest rodents and inhabit southern Europe, Asia, and most regions of Africa. They are a typical indicator of warm climate and their distribution is restricted to tropical and subtropical zones. In China, porcupines are widely distributed in southern areas of the Yangtze River. However, fossil remains have been identified in a few sites in northern China, among which Tianyuan Cave-near Zhoukoudian site-represents the latest known porcupine fossil record. So far, studies have focused mainly on porcupines' husbandry and domestication but little is known about their intrafamilial phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history. RESULTS: In this study, we sequence partial mitochondrial 12S rRNA and cyt b genes for seven Late Pleistocene porcupine individuals from Northern, Southern and Central China. Phylogenetic analyses show that the Tianyuan Cave porcupines, which had been morphologically identified as Hystrix subcristata, have a closer relationship to Hystrix brachyura. CONCLUSION: Together with morphological adaptation characteristics, associated fauna, and climate change evidence, the molecular results reveal that a Late Quaternary extirpation has occurred during the evolutionary history of porcupines.

Sonoanatomy of female reproductive organ of Sunda porcupine (Hystrix javanica).

The conventional anatomical study of specimens requires cutting processes which destruct the limited specimens. A non-destructive method, namely an ultrasonography, can be used to assess the anatomical organ information of those specimens. The aim of this research is to analyse the macroanatomy of the female reproductive organ in the Sunda porcupine (Hystrix javanica), using ultrasonographical imaging. In this study, four formaldehyde-fixed reproductive organ specimens of the Sunda porcupine were used. A 10-12 MHz linear ultrasound transducer was utilized to provide an imaging format of both longitudinal and transversal views. Photographic images were then used as comparison with a sonographic image. The results show that the ultrasound image of the Sunda porcupine reproductive organ soft tissue was hypoechoic, the lumen and antrum follicles were anechoic, while atretic follicles and the mons pubis were hyperechoic. Generally, the size of the organ was not significantly different between photographical and ultrasonographical imaging (p > .05). In conclusion, ultrasound images can be utilized for anatomical studies of the Sunda porcupine reproductive organs without destructing the specimen.

Artéria renal tripla em porco-espinho (Sphiggurus villosus): relato de caso / Triple renal artery in porcupine (Sphiggurus villosus): case report

O interesse pelo estudo de animais silvestres vem crescendo consideravelmente nos últimos anos, seja em decorrência do riscode extinção ou visando o controle de doenças, especialmente as zoonoses. A ordem Rodentia apresenta o maior número deespécies da classe Mammalia. Apesar de ampla distribuição e importância, dados sobre sua anatomia vascular renal são escassosna literatura. O objetivo deste artigo é relatar o aparecimento de variação numérica na artéria renal esquerda em Sphiggurusvillosus com enfoque nas possibilidades de implicações clínico-cirúrgicas, como, anastomoses cirúrgicas, estudos imaginológicos,nefrectomias e planejamento pré-operatório para redução de riscos e complicações como hemorragia. O cadáver foi devidamenteformolizado no Laboratório de Ensino e Pesquisa em Morfologia de Animais Domésticos e Selvagens e posteriormente dissecado.O rim esquerdo apresentou três artérias renais, uma cranial, uma intermediaria e outra caudal, ambas posicionadas em nível de L2emergindo de forma impar lateralmente da aorta abdominal. A primeira artéria, mais cranial, apresentou 10,52 mm de comprimentoe se dirigiu diretamente para o hilo renal, emitindo ramo para adrenal, diafragma e musculatura sublombar. A segunda artéria,intermediária, mediu 7,77 mm, emitiu ramo cranial e caudal para o hilo renal e ramo ureteral. A terceira artéria, caudal, mediu10,11 mm e se dirigiu para o hilo renal. A veia renal esquerda era única e apresentou 9,25 mm de comprimento, posicionada emnível de L1. Este é o primeiro relato de artéria renal tripla em mamífero silvestre.

Interest in the study of wild animals has grown considerably in recent years, either due to the risk of extinction or to control diseases,especially zoonoses. The order Rodentia has the largest number of species in the Mammalia class. Despite its wide distributionand importance, data on its renal vascular anatomy are scarce in the literature. The aim of this paper is to report the appearanceof numerical variation in the left renal artery in porcupine focusing on the possibilities of clinical and surgical implications, suchas surgical anastomoses, imaging studies, nephrectomies and preoperative planning to reduce risks and complications such asbleeding. The animal was duly formalized in the Laboratory of Teaching and Research in Morphology of Domestic and Wild Animalsand subsequently dissected. The left kidney had three renal arteries, one cranial, one intermediate, and one caudal, both positionedat L2 level, emerging unevenly laterally from the abdominal aorta. The first more cranial artery was 10.52 mm long and directeddirectly into the renal hilum, emitting a branch to the adrenal, diaphragm and sub lumbar muscles. The second intermediate arterymeasured 7.77 mm, emitting a cranial and caudal branch to the renal hilum and ureteral branch. The third caudal artery measured10.11 mm and headed straight for the renal hilum. The left renal vein was unique, measured 9.25 mm long, and positioned at L1level. This is the first report of triple renal artery in wild mammals.

Artéria renal tripla em porco-espinho (Sphiggurus villosus): relato de caso / Triple renal artery in porcupine (Sphiggurus villosus): case report

O interesse pelo estudo de animais silvestres vem crescendo consideravelmente nos últimos anos, seja em decorrência do risco de extinção ou visando o controle de doenças, especialmente as zoonoses. A ordem Rodentia apresenta o maior número de espécies da classe Mammalia. Apesar de ampla distribuição e importância, dados sobre sua anatomia vascular renal são escassos na literatura. O objetivo deste artigo é relatar o aparecimento de variação numérica na artéria renal esquerda em Sphiggurusvillosus com enfoque nas possibilidades de implicações clínico-cirúrgicas, como, anastomoses cirúrgicas, estudos imaginológicos, nefrectomias e planejamento pré-operatório para redução de riscos e complicações como hemorragia. O cadáver foi devidamente formolizado no Laboratório de Ensino e Pesquisa em Morfologia de Animais Domésticos e Selvagens e posteriormente dissecado. O rim esquerdo apresentou três artérias renais, uma cranial, uma intermediaria e outra caudal, ambas posicionadas em nível de L2 emergindo de forma impar lateralmente da aorta abdominal. A primeira artéria, mais cranial, apresentou 10,52 mm de comprimento e se dirigiu diretamente para o hilo renal, emitindo ramo para adrenal, diafragma e musculatura sublombar. A segunda artéria, intermediária, mediu 7,77 mm, emitiu ramo cranial e caudal para o hilo renal e ramo ureteral. A terceira artéria, caudal, mediu 10,11 mm e se dirigiu para o hilo renal. A veia renal esquerda era única e apresentou 9,25 mm de comprimento, posicionada em nível de L1. Este é o primeiro relato de artéria renal tripla em mamífero silvestre.

Interest in the study of wild animals has grown considerably in recent years, either due to the risk of extinction or to control diseases, especially zoonoses. The order Rodentia has the largest number of species in the Mammalia class. Despite its wide distribution and importance, data on its renal vascular anatomy are scarce in the literature. The aim of this paper is to report the appearance of numerical variation in the left renal artery in porcupine focusing on the possibilities of clinical and surgical implications, such as surgical anastomoses, imaging studies, nephrectomies and preoperative planning to reduce risks and complications such as bleeding. The animal was duly formalized in the Laboratory of Teaching and Research in Morphology of Domestic and Wild Animals and subsequently dissected. The left kidney had three renal arteries, one cranial, one intermediate, and one caudal, both positioned at L2 level, emerging unevenly laterally from the abdominal aorta. The first more cranial artery was 10.52 mm long and directed directly into the renal hilum, emitting a branch to the adrenal, diaphragm and sub lumbar muscles. The second intermediate artery measured 7.77 mm, emitting a cranial and caudal branch to the renal hilum and ureteral branch. The third caudal artery measured 10.11 mm and headed straight for the renal hilum. The left renal vein was unique, measured 9.25 mm long, and positioned at L1 level. This is the first report of triple renal artery in wild mammals.

Comparative topographic analyses on the foramen magnums of two hystricomorphs: the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) and greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus). Implications for typology, phylogeny and evolution in rodents.

BACKGROUND: This investigation aims to assess species comparison of foramen magnums in two hystricomorphs and endeavours an inter-species categorisation of individual shape outline. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study utilised 35 skull samples of different ages from the crested porcupine (H. cristata) (17) and the greater cane rat (T. swinderianus) (18) through. Elliptical Fourier Analysis, and the two-block Partial Least Squares analysis. Elliptical Fourier descriptor analyses presented marked amplitude related attenuations according to harmonics factor (1/10 to 2,980) in T. swinderianus though angular orientations in the major axis were not profoundly affected by size-normalisation in this species but up-regulated in H. cristata; (1/10 to1/95). RESULTS: Within and between groups analyses revealed PC1&2 contributed 98.94% and 1.06% but 100% PC1 between groups. The 1st to 4th harmonics gave full topographic description of the foramen magnums in both, 1st-3rd harmonics details compared differently revealing shape variance concentrated in posterolateral and posterior regions of the foramen magnum in the porcupine but antero-lateral and dorsal in cane rats, components of morphological asymmetry were demonstrated from 6th to 12th harmonics. Stepwise discriminant analysis of harmonic increments and Mahalanobis distance exposed increasing disparities between both up to the 5 th harmonic (Bonferroni-corrected p-values [277.2, p < 0.002] group centroids) and a slightly lower value in variance for cane rats 0.421 and 0.378 for porcupines. A (58.3% and 33.3%); (94.1% and 11.1%) proportion before and after size-normalised evaluations of porcupines and cane rats size factor removal yielded 35.8% increase in accuracy among crested porcupines but 22.2% decline in cane rats. Dimorphic variations were less frequently expressed in cane rats corresponding to 33.3% and 44.2%. Size normalisation effect brought a reverse situation with an increased difference (11.1% in T. swinderianus; 5.9% in H. cristata). Individual specimen distribution along discriminant axis pooled by discriminant scores depicted less morphologic variability with greater overlaps. CONCLUSIONS: We observe that complexities in foramen magnum architecture between these indicates parcellation of shape and size variance and contributes as evidence for structural evolution, systematics, fundamental similarities and differences offers an explanation that both are related through evolutionary proces of descent as baseline data and further support the suggestion; hystricidae in phylogenetic tree are better evolved and separate from thryonomidae.

The Systematic Position of a Large Porcupine (Hystrix, Hystricidae, Rodentia) from the Pleistocene of Vietnam (Lang Trang Cave).

The dental remains of the porcupine from the Pleistocene deposits of the Lang Trang cave in northern Vietnam are described. Previously, this porcupine was identified as Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758 or H. indica Kerr, 1792. Based on the analysis of morphometric data, the systematic position of the form from Lang Trang and other large Pleistocene porcupines of Vietnam is determined as Hystrix kiangsenensis Wang, 1931.

Porcupine gnaw marks on a Late Pliocene bone from the Upper Siwaliks exposed near Village Khetpurali (Haryana, India).

Bone accumulation by porcupines at archaeological sites is well known. However, in paleontological sites such a taphonomical occurrence is rather rare. We here report porcupine (Hystrix sp.) gnaw marks on an unidentified bone fragment, dated to ~2.6 Ma from the Upper Siwalik deposits exposed near Khetpurali (Haryana), India. The present gnaw marks are very distinct and are characterized by visible edges and grooves making clear broad and shallow furrows. The present find adds to our knowledge of Siwalik vertebrate taphonomy where most of the accumulations reported earlier were either fluvial or made by carnivores.

The dorsal skin structure contributes to the surface bacteria populations of Sunda Porcupine (Hystrix javanica).

Skin becomes the largest organ in the body and protects its own inner layer. The structure and chemical composition of the skin contribute to skin condition and affect the habitat of certain bacteria. The Sunda Porcupine is one of endemic animals of Indonesia which possesses quill as the main derivate of its skin and as a defence tool against predators. The present study used nine adults (five females and four males) of Sunda Porcupine and aimed to observe the correlation of skin structure with bacterial population at the surface level. The skin was wavy due to the protrusion of quill follicle orifices on the skin surface and formed clusters. The skin of Sunda Porcupine was also wrinkled and had a lot of flakiness. Histologically, the skin was composed of epidermis, dermis, hypodermis and subcutaneous muscle. The quill follicles and their properties were the dominant structure component of the skin. No sweat gland was observed in the skin of the Sunda Porcupine, and sebaceous gland was found only around quill and hair follicles. The bacterias identified in the skin were Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Micrococcus sp. and Salmonella sp. When compared, the bacterial population was higher in the lumbosacral region than in the thoracodorsal region, but the difference was not significant. The density of quill clusters was negatively correlated to the bacterial population. It was suggested the structure of the skin has contribution to bacterial population in dorsal trunk of the Sunda Porcupine.

Estabilização vertebral segmentar modificada no tratamento de trauma medular em ouriço-cacheiro (Coendou spinosus): relato de caso / Modified segmental vertebral stabilization in the treatment of spinal cord trauma in a Paraguaian hairy dwarf porcupine (Coendou spinosus): case report

Uma fêmea, adulta, de ouriço-cacheiro (Coendou spinosus, F. Cuvier, 1823), foi atendida com histórico de trauma medular. No exame neurológico, foi constatada paraplegia com nocicepção preservada e sinais compatíveis com choque espinhal. Exame radiográfico e mielografia apontaram presença de fratura e luxação vertebral torácica entre T10-11. O paciente foi submetido à técnica de estabilização vertebral segmentar modificada, com pinos de Steinmann e fios de cerclagem. A técnica utilizada mostrou-se eficaz na estabilização da fratura/luxação vertebral e na recuperação dos sinais neurológicos. O paciente apresentou recuperação progressiva da deambulação. Para o conhecimento dos autores, este é o primeiro relato utilizando estabilização vertebral segmentar modificada para o tratamento de fratura/luxação vertebral torácica em Coendou spinosus.(AU)

An female, adult Paraguayan hairy dwarf porcupine (Coendou spinosus, F. Cuvier, 1823) was referred to the Veterinary Hospital with clinical history of spinal cord injury. In the neurological examination, paraplegia with preserved nociception compatible with signs of spinal shock were observed. Radiographic and myelographic examinations showed evidence of a vertebral dislocation and fracture between the 10th and 11th thoracic vertebrae. The patient underwent surgical stabilization of the lesion using the modified segmental vertebral stabilization technique with Steinmann pins and cerclage wires. Under the conditions reported in this case, the technique was effective in stabilizing vertebral fracture/dislocation and in recovering neurological functions. The patient presented progressive recovery from ambulation. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first case report that performed modified segment stabilization for thoracic vertebral fracture/luxation treatment in Coendou spinosus.(AU)

Dimorfismo sexual e estrutura perineal em Coendou prehensilis (Ouriço-cacheiro) / Sexual dimorphism and perineal structure in Coendou prehensilis (Prehensile-tailed porcupine)

Coendou prehensilis é um mamífero da ordem Rodentia, que é composta por cinco subordens: Sciuromorfos, a qual pertencem os esquilos; Castorimorfos, onde encontramos os castores; Myomorfos, a qual encontramos os ratos; Anomaluromorfos, Lebre-saltadora, e os Histricomorfos, onde observamos a capivara. Utilizamos nesta pesquisa o ouriço-cacheiro (Coendou prehensilis) sendo um macho e uma fêmea, ambos adultos. Estes animais foram encontrados em óbito por atropelamento nas rodovias da região de Pirassununga-SP e cedidos para o Laboratório de Anatomia do Departamento de Medicina Veterinária da Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos da Universidade de São Paulo FZEA/USP devido a permissão do Ibama para estudar os animais (Registro SISBIO no. 43274-1), os quais foram fixados com formaldeído a 10% e dissecados na região do períneo. Os resultados mostraram que a única característica que nos permite diferenciar machos de fêmeas, é o espaço entre o ânus e as genitais dos animais, sendo que o macho apresenta essa distância maior que a fêmea. O períneo é uma região extra cavitária de delimitação losangular, sendo essa delimitação feita pelos ossos interpubiano, púbico e pelos processos do púbis e ísquio. O períneo do Coendou prehensílis macho é composto por cinco principais músculos, sendo três encontrados dispostos no diafragma urogenital superficial, (Músculos isquiocavernosos, M. bulbocavernoso e Mm. Bulboesponjosos) e dois no diafragma pélvico (M. levantador do ânus e M. retrator do pênis). O períneo da fêmea é composto pelos músculos (isquiocavernoso, o bulboesponjoso, levantador do ânus e esfíncter anal externo). Conclui-se que ambos os sexos possuem os músculos isquiocavernosos, Mm. Bulboesponjosos, M. levantador do ânus e esfíncter anal externo, além de que o estudo da região perineal dos animais é de grande importância, pois através do entendimento da função e localização de cada músculo, podemos contribuir para futuras pesquisas sobre reprodução e comportamento animal durante a cópula auxiliando para um melhor entendimento do potencial reprodutivo de roedores da família Erethizontidae, além de contribuir na base do desenvolvimento da biotecnologia aplicada à reprodução visando até mesmo à reprodução desses animais em cativeiro além do meio ambiente livre.(AU)

Coendou prehensilis is a mammal that belongs to the Rodentia order, which consists of five suborders: Sciuromorfos, to which the squirrels belongs; Castorimorfos where we have the beavers; Myomorfos, which include the mice; Anomaluromorfos, Hare jumper, and Hystricomorfos, where we have the capybara. We used the porcupine clerk in the research (Coendou prehensilis), one male and one female, both adults. These animals were transferred to the Laboratory of Anatomy, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo (FZEA/USP), originating from roadaccidents in Pirassununga, SP (Registration n. 43274-1 SISBIO). The animals were fixed with 10% formaldehyde and dissected in the perineum region. The results showed that the only feature which allows us to differentiate males from females is the space between anus and the genitals of the animals; the male has a larger space than the female. The perineum is an extra cavity region with lozenge definition, and this definition is formed by interpubic bones, the pubic and processes of the pubic and ischium. The male Coendou prehensilis perineum consists of five major muscles, three arranged on the urogenital diaphragm surface (ischiocavernosus muscles, M. bulbocavernosus and Mm. bulboesponjosos) and two in the pelvic diaphragm (M. levator ani and M. penis retractor). The female's perineum is composed by ischiocavernosus, bulbospongiosus, levator ani and external anal sphincter muscles. We conclude that both sexes have the ischiocavernosus muscles, Mm. bulboesponjosos, M. levator ani and external anal sphincter, and it is very important to study the perineal region of the animals, because understanding the function and location of each muscle we can contribute to future research on reproduction and animal behavior during copulation, helping to a better knowledge about reproductive potential of Erethizontidae rodents, and to contribute in the applied biotechnology development of reproduction, what can be helpful even in captivity reproduction of these animals besides the ones in free environment.(AU)

A thorny question: the taxonomic identity of the Pirro Nord cervical vertebrae revisited.

The past geographic distribution of the genus Theropithecus (Primates: Cercopithecidae) is mainly restricted to Africa. Outside that continent, the earliest reported records of this genus consist of a calcaneus of cf. Theropithecus sp. from 'Ubeidiya (Israel, 1.6-1.2 Ma [millions of years ago]), as well as three associated cervical vertebrae from Pirro Nord (Italy, 1.7-1.3 Ma) attributed to Theropithecus sp. The attribution of the Pirro Nord vertebrae to this genus has been disputed on morphometric grounds, although their assignment to a large-bodied cercopithecid has remained undisputed. Here we report unpublished cervical vertebral specimens with a similar morphology and, given their significance for the paleobiogeography of Theropithecus (purportedly representing its earliest European record), we re-evaluate their taxonomic attribution. In particular, we reconsider the possibility that they belong to another non-primate mammal recorded at this site. Based on both qualitative and metric morphological comparisons, we strongly favor an alternative attribution of the cervical vertebrae from Pirro Nord to the large porcupine Hystrix refossa, which is widely documented at the site by both dentognathic and other postcranial remains. We therefore conclude that the dispersal of Theropithecus out of Africa before ca. 1 Ma (when it is recorded by dental remains from Cueva Victoria, Spain) is currently based only on the calcaneus from 'Ubeidiya tentatively attributed to this genus.

Separating the influence of the cortex and foam on the mechanical properties of porcupine quills.

Lightweight thin cylinders filled with a foam have applications as collapsible energy absorbers for crashworthy and flotation applications. The local buckling compressive strength and Young's modulus are dependent on material and geometrical properties. Porcupine quills have a thin cortex filled with closed-cell foam, and are entirely composed of α-keratin. The cortex carries the majority of the compressive load, but the foam is able to accommodate and release some of the deformation of the cortex during buckling. The presence of the foam increases the critical buckling strength, buckling strain and elastic strain energy absorption over that of the cortex. Good agreement is found between experimental results and modeled predictions. A strain distribution map of the foam close to the buckled cortex demonstrates that the deformation of the cells plays an important role in accommodating local buckling of the cortex. The robust connection between the foam and cortex results in superior crushing properties compared to synthetic sandwich structure where the foam normally separates from the shell. The foam/cortex construction of the quill can guide future biomimetic fabrications of light weight buckle-resistant columns.

A new species of porcupine, genus Coendou (Rodentia: Erethizontidae) from the Atlantic forest of northeastern Brazil.

We report the discovery of a new species of Coendou (Rodentia, Erethizontidae), here designated Coendou speratus sp. nov. This small porcupine, locally known as coandumirim, is found in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre in the Atlantic coast of northeastern Brazil north of the São Francisco river, one of the most important known biodiversity hotspots. The geographic range of C. speratus overlaps with that of the larger, widespread C. prehensilis, but not with that of C. insidiosus from the southeastern Atlantic forest, nor with that of C. nycthemera, an eastern Amazonian species. Coendou speratus is a small-bodied, long-tailed species that appears to be completely spiny because it lacks long dorsal fur. The dorsal quills have conspicuously brownish red tips that contrast with the blackish dorsal background color. The new species is overall similar to C. nycthemera, but the dorsal body quills are typically tricolored in the former and bicolored in the latter. The new species is externally very distinct from C. insidiosus, especially because the latter has bicolored dorsal quills that are almost completely hidden beneath longer and homogeneous pale or dark hairs.

Axial compression of a hollow cylinder filled with foam: a study of porcupine quills.

Porcupines use their lightweight quills, which are strong enough to support significant compression and flexure loads, for defense. Hystrix, with long and thick quills, belongs to the family of Hystricidae (Old World porcupines), while Erethizon, with smaller quills, belongs to the Erethizontidae family (New World porcupines). The objective of this work is to compare the structure and compressive properties of quills from Hystrix and Erethizon. Both quills have a thin keratinous cortex filled with closed-cell foam that has cell diameters decreasing from the center to the cortex. Hystrix quills have stiffeners that extend from the cortex towards the center. The local buckling strength is larger for Hystrix, and very good agreement is found between the predicted values and the experimental ones for both quills. The foam shows extensive deformation, both tensile and compressive, around the buckled cortex.

Microstructured barbs on the North American porcupine quill enable easy tissue penetration and difficult removal.

North American porcupines are well known for their specialized hairs, or quills that feature microscopic backward-facing deployable barbs that are used in self-defense. Herein we show that the natural quill's geometry enables easy penetration and high tissue adhesion where the barbs specifically contribute to adhesion and unexpectedly, dramatically reduce the force required to penetrate tissue. Reduced penetration force is achieved by topography that appears to create stress concentrations along regions of the quill where the cross sectional diameter grows rapidly, facilitating cutting of the tissue. Barbs located near the first geometrical transition zone exhibit the most substantial impact on minimizing the force required for penetration. Barbs at the tip of the quill independently exhibit the greatest impact on tissue adhesion force and the cooperation between barbs in the 0-2 mm and 2-4 mm regions appears critical to enhance tissue adhesion force. The dual functions of barbs were reproduced with replica molded synthetic polyurethane quills. These findings should serve as the basis for the development of bio-inspired devices such as tissue adhesives or needles, trocars, and vascular tunnelers where minimizing the penetration force is important to prevent collateral damage.

Morphology of the filiform lingual papillae in porcupine (Hystrix cristata).

The light and scanning electron microscopic structure of the filiform lingual papillae was studied in five adult porcupine (three males and two females). The tongue was characterised by a round tip, a rostral median sulcus and a deep lingual fossa which was situated just rostral to a prominent inter-molar eminence corresponding to a torus linguae. The filiform papillae were curved, enclosed a large connective tissue core and were separated by wide inter-papillary zones covered by a thick epithelium. Most filiform papillae had a cylindrical shape, but the rostral and central parts of the tongue contained a number of flat, comb-shaped papillae with rounded tips.

The sources of Gessner's pictures for the Historia animalium.

Gessner's sources for the pictures in his Historia animalium were varied in kind and in quality. This should be understood within the larger context of the Historia animalium in which Gessner sought to collect everything ever written about animals, an enterprise that could not be completed by a single individual. Just as Gessner did not distil or reduce similar texts but retained these as well as contradictory or false textual descriptions as part of a repository of knowledge, so also Gessner included several pictures of the same animal, false or badly drawn ones, and juxtaposed erroneous and 'true' images. The attribution of images to witnesses and correspondences also reflects Gessner's strategy to credit those who drew his attention to new information first. The sources of Gessner's images thus indicate how his visual world encompassed more than the strictly self-observable, and a pictorial practice that was intimately connected with textual traditions and intellectual networks.

On the Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica (Kerr, 1792) in Turkey (Mammalia: Rodentia).

This study presents some data about ecological, biological and taxonomical characteristics of Hystrix indica (Kerr, 1792) from Turkey. For this purpose characteristics of burrow, skull, tooth and measurements of external and cranial characters of two female H. indica from Turkey were investigated. It was concluded that our specimens are between the Middle East and Indian sub-region specimens in terms of morphometrical. It was also determined that there were roots in stomach contents of specimens.

Nuclear organization and morphology of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the brain of the Cape porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis): increased brain size does not lead to increased organizational complexity.

The distribution, morphology and nuclear organization of the cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems within the brain of the Cape porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis) were identified following immunohistochemistry for choline acetyltransferase, tyrosine hydroxylase and serotonin. The aim of the present study was to investigate possible differences in the complement of nuclear subdivisions of these systems in the Cape porcupine in comparison with previous studies of these systems in other rodents. The Cape porcupine is the largest rodent in which these systems have been examined and has an adult body mass of 10-24kg and an average brain mass of approximately 37g, around 15 times larger than the laboratory rat. The Cape porcupines were taken from the wild and while these differences, especially that of mass, may lead to the prediction of a significant difference in the nuclear organization or number within these systems, all the nuclei observed in all three systems in the laboratory rat and in other rodents had direct homologues in the brain of the Cape porcupine. Moreover, there were no additional nuclei in the brain of the Cape porcupine that are not found in the laboratory rat or other rodents studied and vice versa. It is noted that the medial septal nucleus of the Cape porcupine appeared qualitatively to have a reduced number of neurons in comparison to the laboratory rat and other rodents. The locus coeruleus of the laboratory rat differs in location to that observed for the Cape porcupine and several other rodent species. The Cape porcupine is distantly related to the laboratory rat, but still a member of the order Rodentia; thus, changes in the organization of these systems appears to demonstrate a form of constraint related to the phylogenetic level of the order.

Functional anatomy of the limbs of erethizontidae (Rodentia, Caviomorpha): Indicators of locomotor behavior in Miocene porcupines.

Functional analysis of the limb bones of the erethizontid Steiromys duplicatus, one of the most abundant Miocene porcupines from Patagonia, provides evidence to infer their locomotor behavior. Remains of the giant Neosteiromys pattoni (Late Miocene of Northeast Argentina) are also analyzed. Osteological and myological features of extant porcupines were evaluated and used as a model to interpret the functional significance of Miocene species' limbs. Several features in erethizontids are compatible with the ability to climb: the low humeral tuberosities indicate a mobile gleno-humeral joint; the prominent and distally extended deltopectoral crest indicates a powerful pectoral muscle, which is particularly active when climbing; the humero-ulnar and humero-radial joints are indicative of pronation-supination movements; the well-developed lateral epicondylar ridge and the medially protruding entepicondyle are in agreement with an important development of the brachioradialis, supinator, flexor digitorum profundus, and pronator teres muscles, acting in climbing and grasping functions; the mechanical advantage of the biceps brachii would be emphasized because of its distal attachment on the bicipital tuberosity. As with extant porcupines, in Miocene species, the large femoral head would have permitted a broad range of abduction of the femur, and the medially protruding lesser trochanter would have emphasized the abduction and outward rotation of the femur by the action of the ilio-psoas complex. In S. duplicatus, the shape of the hip, knee, and cruro-astragalar, calcaneo-astragalar, and astragalo-navicular joints would have allowed lateral and rotational movements, although probably to a lesser degree than in extant porcupines. Foot features of S. duplicatus (e.g., great medial sesamoid bone, medial astragalar head, complete hallux) indicate that this species would have had grasping ability, but would not have achieved the high degree of specialization of Coendou. Steiromys duplicatus would have been a semiarboreal dweller, resembling Erethizon dorsatum.